Basketball and Favorite Club Essay Example for Free

B-ball and Favorite Club Essay Club My preferred club is the FCCLA (Family, Career and Community Leaders of America). It truly is a pleasant encounter to help other people and offer guidance. I like being in a club that is devoted to helping other people. We likewise go on field trips which are quite fun. It allows us to make some great memories with companions. The FCCLA is pass on my preferred club. At the point when we get the opportunity to help other people it truly does right by me. We traveled to a grade school and read to certain children. The children truly delighted in us coming. We read to them and helped them with expressions and art. We additionally helped the poor by giving them canned merchandise. FCCLa gives us a decent opportunity to show our mindful side. Field trips are another explanation The FCCLa is my preferred club. This year we get an opportunity to go to King Dominion. I have just been once, and Im truly anticipating going. They give us opportunities to do gathering pledges to decrease the value, which truly encourages us. We likewise get an opportunity to go to a ball game. IVe consistently needed to go to a NBA game, however I never got an opportunity. Every one of these reasons make the FCCLA my preferred club. The fccla encourages us develop as an individual, in contrast to some different clubs. Giving us circumstances to help other people and accommodating those out of luck. There is no other club that does that. This does right by me to be in the FCCLa.

Economic Boom of the 1920s Essay

Just the individuals who know close to nothing or nothing about financial matters and the extremely gullible didn't know in the year 1925 that monetary difficult situations follow great occasions as monetary blasts and droops are repetitive. All things considered, there were different reasons why even prepared business analysts may have conjectured that monetary success of the 1920s would proceed forevermore. Apparatus, fabricating plants and â€Å"the procedure of normalized mass production† were the principle purposes behind the fervor of the 1920s (Schultz and Tischler). Truth be told, the economy of the United States kept on developing until 1929. The First World War had urged industry to grow. Work deficiencies combined with the need to expand creation had invigorated the improvement of proficient methods of creation. Taylorism or logical administration to smooth out procedures of creation so as to expand creation limit had been presented around the nation. With new apparatus and the board instruments, laborer efficiency was raised. This ascent in profitability expanded wages, along these lines expanding utilization. Americans were likewise urged to utilize credit to fuel utilization at that point. The portion plan was a development of the 1920s. In addition, the administration upheld organizations by raising taxes on remote products, diminishing individual annual expense and corporate duty, revoking charges on benefits, and investigating uncalled for exchange rehearses as a way to urge organizations to extend (Schultz and Tischler). The shopper brain research in 1925 was another motivation behind why many may have contemplated that monetary droops are a relic of past times. Americans had the radio at that point, notwithstanding a developing film industry to keep their attitudes positive. They likewise had electric machines at home and a developing vehicle industry causing them to accept their lives had altered forevermore in a positive course (Schultz and Tischler). On the other hand, every one of the individuals who think about the financial blast bust cycle knew in 1925 that a droop makes certain to follow a blast. Works Cited Schultz, Stanley K. , and William P. Tischler. â€Å"Civil War to the Present. † American History 102. 1999. 1 Mar 2009. <http://us. history. wisc. edu/hist

Tips for Decision Day

Tips for Decision Day Hey guys! As Im sure you know, decision release day is coming up for our early action applicants. We had a very talented group of students apply this year for early action, and I think that we’ve started to build an exceptional class. I wanted to take a little time to give you a few tips for what you should (and should not) be doing on the day that decisions are released. 1. Repeat after me: Do. Not. Panic! Be sure to take a deep breath and keep yourself calm throughout the day. Also, when it comes to actually checking your status in your myIllini account, be patient. Thousands of students are going to be logging into their accounts all at once, so we may encounter some technical difficulties. If you aren’t able to see your decision right away, maybe take a walk around the block, watch a video, and then check back to see if you’re able to get into your account. 2.  Additionally, dont  keep clicking refresh since this just slows our servers down. Also, remember that the more people who are in your myIllini account, the slower it will run. So make sure that you  are the only one checking your admission decision. 3. Its also a good idea to attempt to log into your myIllini account before decisions come out in order to ensure that you remember your email, username, and password. That way when the time comes to check your admission decision, you’re able to log in without any problems. 4. Keep in mind that you are able to accept your offer of admission immediately. If you would prefer to hear back from the other institutions that you have applied to, receive your financial aid package, etc., you have until May 1, 2018 to decide where you would like to enroll. 5. Speaking of financial aid, remember that scholarship information will not be included with your admission decision. The majority of merit-based scholarships are awarded within a few weeks after admission decisions are released. All scholarships should be awarded no later than March 1, 2018. For more information, you can contact the Office of Student Financial Aid. 6. Finally, our office will be available by phone for questions regarding your admission decision starting on Monday, December 18. We are open from 8:30 am to 5:00 pm CST. In the meantime, if you would like to know more about what your decision means, you can read about it here! Also, please note that we are unable to answer questions regarding admission decisions via email, so you will be directed to call our office for further information. To finish up, I just wanted to thank all of you for applying to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. We are very fortunate to have so many qualified applicants apply to our institution each year, and it is our pleasure to work with you and to get to know many of you. We are confident that you are ready to run into the next phase of your lifeâ€"hopefully here at Illinois! Zoe Transfer Recruitment Coordinator, Undergraduate Admissions I help transfer students navigate our application and admission process. I have a background not only in admissions but also in financial aid. I'm originally from southeastern Michigan.

Using a novel in the literacy classroom; Surfing Mr Petrovic

It begins with the dramatic line Everybody hates me. The author then proceeds to take us on a journey written in the first person from the point-of-view of Tao Symonds, the eleven year old narrator and central character, as he reflects on the previous few months of his life. Tao thinks the whole world is against him. He is suffering pressure from school, his parents and their new partners, as well as from his peers to join in theirescapades and to top it all off, his dog has died. Tao feels confused and angry because his parents, middle aged surfer father, Greg, and his mother, a teacher called Christine, are in the process of a break-up. Tao then lists his troubles and tells the reader of his present dread as he is taken by his mother†¦show more content†¦Tao expects him to gouge out his eyes upon meeting him but Mr Petrovic ...did a remarkable thing. He patted me on the cheek (Bowles, 1997, p.127). This reveals to the reader that the text has been very one sided and there is another side to the story. I enjoyed Surfing Mr Petrovic very much. This is an important point in teaching English and encouraging children to read for enjoyment. It is unlikely that a teacher can inspire or encourage children to read if the teacher cannot display genuine enthusiasm for the text they are promoting (Elements of an English Program: Sharing Texts, 2007). Preceding the sharing of the text with students an explanation would occur as to why this particular text was being introduced. It would be stated that the text will be read primarily for enjoyment but also to use the opportunity to explore the themes, structure and features of different text genres. The title, cover and blurb would be used to encourage students to make predictions about the text and what it might be about (see appendix 1). The approach to the reading of the novel would be varied. It is anticipated that the class study would begin with a shared reading of the opening chapter to foster students interest. A prepared reading by the teacher is usually much more involving than a hesitant reading-around-the-class activity (Sykes, n.d.). The aim is to motivate each student to read the

Video Games Promote Violence And Sexual Aggression

Over the past few decades, video games have rapidly evolved from simple games like Pac-Man and Tetris to complex interactive media platforms popular with people of all ages. As video games skyrocketed in popularity, so have public attention and research studies alongside them. The controversial issue of video games promoting violence or sexual aggression is currently still being hotly debated by educated people from both sides of the argument. However, there is compelling evidence which proves that themes of violence in video games do indeed affect violent tendencies in the real-world, including but not limited to forms of sexual aggression towards women due to the objectification of female characters in video games. In Grand Theft Auto V, players are awarded a prostitute’s money once they kill her and forced to enact a torture session on someone to extract information from him; in the Call of Duty Franchise, players are prompted to gun down and bomb innocent civilians. These games are only a few examples of exposure to violence in a rising media form. Considering that â€Å"upward[s] of 90 percent of American children between the ages of 2 and 17 play video and computer games regularly† (Funk, 1993), the high content of violence in video games should be re-evaluated. Though not all violence in video games is depicted seriously, â€Å"most of the top-selling video games (89%) [contain] violent content† (Knowles et. al, 2001). There have been thousands of studies indicating aShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Media Violence On Teenagers1509 Words   |  7 PagesEffects on Media Violence and Young Children and Teenagers Violence and aggression have been seen often in nowadays media through music, commercials, video games, television and movies. Many argue whether the violence in media makes impact on people. Some claim there is no correlation between violence in media and reality. Christopher Ferguson, an associate professor in Psychology at Stetson University said â€Å"Basically, by †¦ playing first-person shooter video game †¦ you keep them off the streetsRead MoreEng 1011630 Words   |  7 PagesViolence in Music Videos and Music Lyrics has a negative impact on children. Music videos that expose profanity and sexuality are inappropriate and leave a negative impression on young children. Violence in music videos can cause health problem. Music videos that promote negative lyrics are affecting young children. Music lyrics with vulgar languages affect the development and well-being of young children. For example, the study author (Stone, 2009) found â€Å"that music with expli cit referencesRead MoreReal World Violence And Video Games1513 Words   |  7 PagesReal-World Violence and Video Games From news outlets, to politicians, to parents: when tragedies occur they place the blame on many different sources. After the Sandy Hook shooting, media networks fiercely debated whether or not video games played a part in the shooter’s motives, as he had played games from the notorious Grand Theft Auto series prior to the shooting. Some even suggested banning video games outright, despite the fact that other mediums that can portray violence, such as moviesRead MoreThe Effects Of Media On Young Children1742 Words   |  7 Pages Abstract This paper intends to bring awareness to the harmful effects of the media on young children. Through this paper, I will investigate the claim that television promotes observational learning. I will describe the obscenities the media exposes to children. With that, I will explain how the media causes aggression in consumers, especially those of youth. This paper will also expound on the powerful effect modeling has on behavior. I will provide extensive examples of the impact of theRead MoreThe Effects Of Media Violence On People1388 Words   |  6 PagesMedia Violence on People Media violence impacts the physical aggression of human beings. It is one of the many potential factors that influence the risk for violence and aggression. Research has proven that aggression in children will cause the likelihood of aggression in their adulthood. Theories have evolved that the violence present in the media most likely teaches the viewer to be more violent. It is a risky behavior that is established from the childhood. Furthermore, media violence is a publicRead MoreMedia Kids Essay1262 Words   |  6 Pagesshow emotion. The violence and risky behaviors as depicted on TV can have a profound effect on a young developing mind. It is well known that the first two years of life is when the brain undergoes critical development phases. During this time it is important that kids develop an accurate perception of the world they are growing up in. Over consumption of media (in general) presents a false reality that rewards for violent behavior, hinders mental and physical de velopment, and promotes risky behaviorRead MoreThe Effects Of Media On Our Lives1543 Words   |  7 Pagesmovies, TV shows, music, and surprisingly, even the video games are now a major part of media. All these media divarication play no negative roles on our lives for some people. However, I believe for each one of media’s divarication there is a specific violent reaction in our real lives. First, media is one of the extensive factors for the violence in our behavior. According to Craig A. Anderson and Soledad Lilian Escobar-Chaves in the â€Å"Violence in The Media,† studies that have been examined peopleRead MoreTaking a Look at Violence1415 Words   |  6 Pages What is violence? Violence is defined as behavior involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something (Webster Dictionary). Violence can be can be found nearly everywhere. In homes, in the media, in video games, even at schools and the workplace. â€Å"No one is born violent, it is not instinctive or in our nature. Violence is under our own control,† says Diana Fouad Owayed (Finding solutions to violence). All kinds of people can act violent and commit crimes for numerousRead MoreMass Media and Violence Essay891 Words   |  4 PagesMass Media and Violence Is it hard to believe that just forty years ago only a few privileged American families had televisions in their home? In recent years, it is estimated that a whopping ninety-eight percent of Americans have one or more television sets in their home. Motion pictures, televisions, video games, and the internet are just some forms of mass media that have emerged since the last century. With the rise of mass media, the increase of violent behavior has increased as well. MassRead MoreThe Effects Of Video Games On Adolescents And Adults Alike1648 Words   |  7 Pagesuntil now, the biggest question in society about video games has been what to do about violent games. But it s almost like society in general considers video games to be something of a nuisance, that they want to toss into the garbage can†. Many critics believe that first person shooters (FPS) video games have an adverse affect on a child’s mental growth and capabilities. However, the same critics have failed to recognize the beneficial uses of the games on adolescents and adults alike. The argument

Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives Free Essays

string(100) " all the rest happening in the world as we speak comprise a portion of the general karma of things\." Buddhism espouses the concept of â€Å"karma† which refers to the chains of causes and events in the universe (Reichenbach, p. 137). A person who has experienced something good in life is said to have good karma whereas the opposite is true for the person who has experienced something bad. We will write a custom essay sample on Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives or any similar topic only for you Order Now In a way, karma serves as the law of moral causation precisely because moral and immoral acts result to good and bad consequences, respectively. Thus, doing something good can ultimately lead to a morally sound consequence whereas doing something bad can eventually lead to an immoral effect. In any case, the â€Å"something† in â€Å"doing something† can be either right or wrong in itself. Similarly, the â€Å"something† in â€Å"doing something† can also be either right or wrong with respect to its consequences. Taking the Buddhist concept of karma and using it within the context of ethics, the result is an understanding of the connection between karma, deontological and teleological ethics. For the most part, deontological ethics is a branch of ethics that deals with the moral worth of actions. That is, the moral worth of something depends on the rightness or wrongness of the act that causes it. For instance, aborting an unborn fetus in order to save the mother is morally wrong essentially because abortion kills a living being and is, therefore, wrong in the first place. In deontological ethics, the rightness or wrongness of an act is fundamental in determining whether an action is ethical or unethical, which implies that the basis for saying whether an act is moral or immoral is the act itself. Connecting that thought with the Buddhist concept of karma, the totality of all the chains of causes and effects in the world is the summation of all actions that are inherently good or evil regardless of their consequences. As a result, the foundation of the Buddhist concept of karma when viewed from a deontological ethical perspective is the action itself no matter what the consequence may be. While deontological ethics treats actions and their consequences separately when identifying the moral worth of actions, it does not mean however that actions and their consequences are inherently separate. Rather, they remain tied insofar as they remain causes and effects to one another. On the other hand, teleological ethics is primarily concerned with the consequences of actions in determining their moral worth, which is why most teleological ethical theories are also called consequentialist ethical theories. The moral worth of an action can be gauged in terms of the consequences it leads to. For instance, aborting a child may save the mother, thereby making the act of abortion in the specific circumstance morally permissible and ethical at the same time. So long as the consequences are favorable, an action remains moral as far as teleological ethical theory is concerned. With that in mind, the Buddhist concept of karma sits comfortably with teleological ethics. That is because karma involves both causes and effects; no action can be determined as either right or wrong if there is no consideration for the consequences it leads to. Taken as a whole, there is strong reason to believe that karma shares several revealing characteristics with the philosophical formulations of both deontological and teleological ethical theories. In most case, teleological and deontological ethical theories are often placed on extreme poles primarily because each treats the moral worth of action in distinct ways. However, the Buddhist concept of karma can provide a common ground for both ethical theories at least in terms of one thing—the causation of events in the universe. Buddhist Karma and Deontology Immanuel Kant is one of the foremost philosophers who favored deontology throughout his career. Kant once argued that human beings should not be treated as means to an end but as the ends themselves (Sokoloff, p. 770). In other words, a person should not use another person as a way for him to achieve his desires. Rather, that person ought to treat the other person with respect and dignity precisely because the welfare of other persons should be at the helm of every human pursuit. That idea closely resembles the â€Å"golden rule† which proposes that a person should act towards other people in the way that he expects himself to be treated by others. Deontological ethics, therefore, prescribes that actions are morally right because of their morally right nature. Given the fact that karma in general is the totality of all causes and effects in the universe, it can also be said as the totality of all the interactions among human beings with other fellow human beings. Although karma is not entirely limited to such an interpretation, it nevertheless accepts the fact that interpersonal interaction—apart from humanity’s interaction with the surrounding environment—can be the respective causes of certain effects and effects of certain causes. A society can be composed of individuals treating one another as means to an end, as ends themselves or a combination thereof. Take all societies in the world and the picture becomes broader yet clearer. In a way, interpersonal interaction has a substantial role in the general karma of all things. There are countless numbers of individuals from across the world taking part in the activities that occur on a daily basis. Somewhere in North Korea, there may be a person who is morally condemned for constantly threatening neighboring countries through the testing of potentially dangerous nuclear armaments. Somewhere in the United States, a policeman avoids offers of bribe due to the belief that the act of bribing in itself is morally wrong even though the money given can be enough to sustain the officer’s family’s financial needs for another month. Somewhere in Saudi Arabia, a man pays respect to his elders by making them happy through gifts because he believes that his elders are human beings who deserve all the happiness in the world just like anybody else. These interactions and all the rest happening in the world as we speak comprise a portion of the general karma of things. You read "Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives" in category "Papers" Performing actions that are inherently ethical or unethical can influence the way in which karma takes places. The favor may be returned or not. Either way, both ethical and unethical actions play a role in the chains of causes and effects in the universe. Buddhist Karma and Teleology The key principle in teleological ethical theory is the idea that an action is morally right or wrong depending on its consequences. One version of that idea is utilitarianism which grants that an action is good if it leads to the greatest benefit of the greatest number (Freeman, p. 313). Conversely, a person’s actions or decisions are morally right if it actually promotes the welfare of the wide majority of people involved or concerned in the situation. On the other hand, an action is wrong if it does the exact opposite, which is either to promote the welfare of the few or to cause harm to the majority. Teleological ethics, therefore, implies that the consequences of an action largely determine its moral worth. In the case of utilitarianism, determining the moral worth of an action is possible if the consequences can be quantified. If teleological ethics depends on the consequences of actions, it will also naturally involve the relationship between the cause and effect of any given circumstance. In effect, good karma can be characterized as karma resulting from the good consequences of an individual’s actions or decisions. On the other hand, bad karma can be characterized as karma resulting from the bad consequences of a person’s acts. In both cases, there is the presumption that there are causes in the same way as there are effects. That presumption underscores the principle that the relationship between causes and effects significantly determines not only the rightness or wrongness of actions but also their good and bad valuations in terms of Buddhist karma. When taken from the broadest perspective of teleological ethics, karma can be seen occurring in almost every part of the globe. A president of a certain first-world country deciding to aid people living in impoverished countries through foreign aid can certainly give good consequences to an immense number of people. In effect, the benefits these people will be receiving through the aid can be said as part of their good karma. On the other hand, the praises from the international community and the appreciation of the people at the receiving end of the foreign aid can also be said as part of the good karma for the president. Another example is when one nation decides to declare war on another distant nation. The results can be devastating, the most significant of which is the possible loss of countless lives. For both sides participating in the war, the bad karma can be easily seen not only for the people who lived to witness and experience firsthand the atrocities of the war but also for the generations that will follow. Karma interpreted in the context of teleological ethics can also refer to ordinary events on a smaller scale. A person taking the law into his own hands by murdering another person for vengeance will be jailed. Consequently, the jailing of the murder convict can be said as a form of bad karma. A person gaining a new friend by sharing the table to another stranger in the public library can be said as good karma. At any rate, the consequences of our actions determine our actions’ moral worth, and it is from the relationship between the consequences and the actions where Buddhist karma can be taken from. Deontology’s Karma versus Teleology’s Karma What are the differences between deontology’s karma and teleology’s karma? For the most part, it can be said that both deontological and teleological ethics attempt to categorize moral worth of actions, the former in terms of the nature of the actions and the latter in terms of their consequences. Although the difference largely rests on what to use as the basis for the moral worth of an action, the undeniable similarity is that both ethical theories touch the Buddhist concept of karma. At the least, the concept of karma provides the common ground for the ethical theories that are commonly labeled as anti-thesis to one another. Since karma presupposes causes and effects, it must also deal with the relationships that exist between them. On one hand, the relationship can be viewed in terms of the â€Å"cause† determining its own moral worth independently from the â€Å"effect†. On the other hand, the relationship can also be viewed in terms of the â€Å"effect† determining the moral worth of the â€Å"cause†. In both instances, the causes naturally lead to their effects even though the basis for identifying their moral worth differs. As Kaufman writes, karma is â€Å"not only about the causes of an effect insomuch as it is not only about the effects of a cause in any given circumstance. Rather, it is about the marriage of the two† (Kaufman, p. 16). This inseparability of the cause from the effect—or vice versa—in terms of Buddhist karma is the reason why it can be said that deontological and teleological ethics are looking at the same coin only focusing on different sides, so to speak. They look at the same relationships although each one concentrates on a distinct angle—deontology on the cause and teleology on the effect. Karma and General Ethics Damien Keown writes that karma â€Å"inevitably concerns a person’s character† (Keown, p. 331). That is because a person’s character can influence his actions and decisions as well as the effects of such actions and decisions. In effect, the chains of universal causes and effects involve the overall moral characters of all people. Karma becomes intertwined, as it does in fact, with the ethical inclinations of individuals. In general, ethics is concerned with the rightness or wrongness of things. It offers a wide array of ethical precepts which people are expected to follow in order to live morally upright lives. Karma, on the other hand, implies a person’s capacity to make his own decisions and, therefore, his capacity to self-determination as opposed to abiding by a predetermined fate. Taken together, ethics provides options for individuals to fully realize the things that they want to achieve. Ethics provides frameworks for people to use in order to make decisions and enact them based on what is morally permissible. Keeping in line with what is morally permissible is said to lead to good karma while deviating from what is moral can lead to bad karma. Deontological and teleological ethics are just two of the ethical doctrines that individuals can follow in order to attain a favorable karma. Although deontological and teleological ethics are both unique to the point that they contradict one another in terms of what to use as basis for determining the moral worth of actions, they also come into terms within the context of the Buddhist karma. They share the common belief in the causation of things; everything happens for a reason. Either the cause in itself is the reason for the act’s moral worth or the effect determines the moral worth of the action. Works Cited Freeman, Samuel. â€Å"Utilitarianism, Deontology, and the Priority of Right. † Philosophy and Public Affairs 23. 4 (1994): 313-49. Kaufman, Whitley R. P. â€Å"Karma, Rebirth, and the Problem of Evil. † Philosophy East and West 55. 1 (2005): 15-32. Keown, Damien. â€Å"Karma, Character, and Consequentialism. † The Journal of Religious Ethics 24. 2 (1996): 329-50. Reichenbach, Bruce R. â€Å"Karma, Causation, and Divine Intervention. † Philosophy East and West 39. 2 (1989): 135-49. Sokoloff, William W. â€Å"Kant and the Paradox of Respect. † American Journal of Political Science 45. 4 (2001): 768-79. How to cite Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives, Papers

Compare and Contrast Tumor Suppressor Genes and Proto-Oncogenes free essay sample

Compare and contrast tumour suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes. Discuss an example of how recent advances in our understanding of these genes have led to the development of a novel therapy that is being used in the treatment of human cancer. Cancer known in medicine as a malignant neoplasm is one of the biggest killers worldwide. In 2007, cancer caused roughly 13% (7. 9 million) of the planet’s deaths (Jemal, 2011). This will more greatly affect an aging society such as ours in years to come, and yet it is already the foremost cause of death in the developed world. The main reason cancer causes so many fatalities the body’s inability to mount an effective response to the failure of DNA replication within the body. This results in a mass of uncontrolled tissue proliferation which eventually leads to death. Approximately, 50% of all people who get cancer will eventually succumb to the disease (Jemal, 2011). It is therefore essential that new methods for controlling the disease are found to improve the prognosis of suffers. Tumour suppressor genes normally function to uncontrolled proliferation of cells within the body. They do this through a variety of means, they might prevent inappropriate progression of the cell cycle, or drive already cancerous cells towards apoptosis, and others simply check for errors during replication increasing fidelity (Sherr, 2004). Mutant versions that are present in cancers have lost the function to perform any of these properly. In contrast to oncogenes, tumour suppressor cells generally follow the two hit hypothesis (Knudson, 2001). The hypothesis indicates that two mutations must affect both of the normally dominant tumour suppressor cells before a mutant phenotype is seen. Proto-Oncogenes are usually recessive, hence it only takes a single mutation to one of the alleles (to become dominant as it is a gain of function mutation) before a mutant phenotype is seen. Although, this is not true for all cancers, and sometimes the tumour suppressing genes can exhibit haploinsuffciency which allows cancer to develop with only one mutation to one of the alleles (Knudson, 1971). Mutations (for most cancers) must appear in both tumour suppressing genes and oncogenes for cancers to form. The tumour suppressing genes and oncogenes act in complementary fashion to one another; one pulls forward, and the other pushes back ensuring that the cell cycle occurs in a controlled manner (Sherr, 2004). Oncogenes were discovered in the 1960s, when it was discovered that some animal cancers such as lymphomas were caused by viruses. Some of these viruses were notable due to the simplicity of their RNA genome. These viruses only had three distinct transcription units, involved in the replication of the virus (coat proteins and reverse transcriptase etc. ), and an extra gene. This was an oncogene. When oncogenes are properly functioning they are termed proto-oncogenes (Todd R, 1999). Their normal function is to control cell proliferation. These function in growth signalling pathways, and conversely to tumour suppressing cells are activated through a gain in function rather than a loss of it. This occurs in two ways, by producing more of a product, or producing a subtly different product, as a result of a mutation similar to tumour suppressor genes (Croce, 2008). Oncogenes play a particularly strong role in the development of breast cancers. Often the normal ERBB2 and other related genes are amplified in late stage neuroblastomas and rhabdomyosarcomas. ERBB2 encodes HER2 which is a member of the epidermal growth factor receptor, and a factor in 30% of all breast cancers. Both tumour suppressor and oncogene gene mutations can be acquired through exposure to carcinogens or inherited in the form of genetic defects: for example, a defective APC gene causes familial adenomatous polyposis which has been shown to run through families (Amos-Landgraf, 2007). The increased understanding of tumour suppressor genes and oncogenes has helped scientists develop novel techniques when dealing with cancer. One of the most exciting is the direct targeting of some of the genes which cause cancer. In particular regard to oncogenes as it is significantly easier to repress expression in cancerous comparison to restoring normal gene functions which would require inserting exogenous DNA into cancer cells. The insertion of the DNA provides an almost insurmountable problem, which has not yet been circumvented fully. Furthermore, cancerous cells may have several mutations which need to be undone, and any treatment will unfortunately probably be undirected and thus not suitable for chemotherapy. Although some successful experiments have been done (Ramesh and Al-et, 2001). The aforementioned HER2 is the target of the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab. Trastuzumab was the first drug which was specifically designed to repress the activity of a oncogene and is one of the most well known. The mechanism which trastuzumab uses to stop cancer cell proliferation is unknown. It is hypothesised that it binds to the domain IV of the extracellular segment of HER2, and as a result causes cell cycle arrest by inducing immune cells to target the cell thus reducing cell proliferation, and the prognosis of any suffers (Hyun-Soo Cho, 2003). Another postulated mode of action is that it downregulates HER2/neu. This is done by disrupting dimerisation of the HER2 cell hence not allowing it to promote cell growth, as it would in a healthy person. It does this by regulating cdc2 (a protein that keeps mitosis under control), by ensuring the regulatory protein p27Kip1 is allowed to inhibit cdc2. In tumour cells p27Kip1 doesn’t move into the nucleus and is inhibited by HER2 (Molina and Et-al, 2001). The manufacturers of trastuzumab cite that the drug has had a â€Å"major impact in the treatment of HER-2 positive metastatic breast cancer† (Tan, 2003), however following studies have been less positive about the benefits of drug. In one trail only one patient in 13 saw any benefit in result of being administered the drug. Trastuzumab is also very expensive, as much as $70,000 for a full course (Fleck, 2006). Trastuzumab is only the first of many therapies that will involve oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes, and the area remains a very intensive area of research. Indeed, there are many new drugs coming to market and through clinical trials which will hopefully be even more effective than Trastuzumab is. They will be used to treat a much wider range of cancers, and as a result increase the standard of living across the globe. Words: 996 Bibliography AMOS-LANDGRAF, J. 007. A target-selected Apc-mutant rat kindred enhances the modeling of familial human colon cancer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 4036 41 CROCE, C. M. 2008. Oncogenes and Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358, 502 11. FLECK, L. 2006. The costs of caring: Who pays? Who profits? Who panders? . Hastings Central Report, 36, 13 17. HYUN-SOO CHO, E. A. 2003. Structure of th e extracellular region of HER2 alone and in complex with the Herceptin Fab. Nature Reviews Cancer, 421, 756 760. JEMAL, A. 2011. Global Cancer Statistics. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 61, 69 90. KNUDSON, A. G. 1971. 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